What is a Case Study?

A case study is a qualitative research strategy that involves an in-depth analysis of a phenomenon, event, person, or group in its real-life context. This methodology is used to gain a detailed and contextualized understanding of complex situations and is essential in qualitative research.

Use of Case Studies in Different Disciplines

• Social Sciences
  • Sociology and Anthropology: Case studies are used to explore and understand the social, cultural, and behavioral dynamics of specific groups. For example, indigenous communities may be studied to understand their cultural and social practices.
  • Psychology: In clinical psychology, case studies allow for an in-depth analysis of individuals with specific conditions, such as mental disorders, providing detailed information about their experiences and treatments.
  • Education: In education, case studies may analyze the impact of new teaching methodologies on student performance or study the environment of a school to better understand the factors affecting learning.
• Health Sciences
  • Medicine: Clinical case studies are essential for documenting rare or unusual cases of diseases, innovative treatments, and clinical outcomes, providing a basis for future research and medical practices.
  • Nursing: Case studies are used to better understand patient experiences and the effects of nursing interventions, thereby improving patient care.
  • Public Health: Case studies in public health can analyze the impact of health policies, vaccination campaigns, or prevention programs in specific communities.
• Business Sciences
  • Management and Administration: Case studies are employed to analyze business strategies, leadership, organizational changes, and management practices in specific companies, helping students and professionals better understand successful practices and challenges in the real world.
  • Marketing: In marketing, case studies are used to examine successful and failed marketing campaigns, providing a deep understanding of the tactics used and their results.
• Political Sciences
  • Public Policy: Case studies can analyze the implementation and impact of public policies in different contexts, providing a detailed view of political processes and their effects on society.
  • International Relations: Case studies are used to study international conflicts, diplomatic negotiations, and power dynamics between countries, offering an in-depth understanding of key events and decisions.
• Engineering and Technology Sciences
  • Engineering: Case studies may document engineering projects, design failures and successes, offering valuable lessons for future projects.
  • Information Technology: In this field, case studies are used to evaluate the implementation of IT systems, technology project management, and problem-solving in real-world environments.

---

DEFINITION OF CASE STUDY ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT AUTHORS

FEATURES OF ROBERT STAKE’S (1998) APPROACH TO CASE STUDIES

For Robert Stake (1998), a case study is an empirical investigation that focuses on the particularity and complexity of a singular case to understand its activity in significant circumstances. This approach is based on a holistic and contextual understanding of the phenomenon, considering each detail and its interaction with the environment.

Main Features

• Naturalistic and Holistic Approach:
  • Naturalistic: Stake (1998) adopts a naturalistic approach that seeks to study phenomena in their natural environment. This means observing and analyzing the case as it occurs in its real context, without trying to manipulate or control variables. The intent is to capture the authenticity and richness of the phenomenon in its natural setting.
  • Holistic: Stake (1998) views the case in its entirety, paying attention to all parts and their interrelationships. This holistic approach means that it’s not just about looking at the individual elements of the case, but understanding how these elements interact and influence one another within the context of the case.
• Emphasis on Narrative and Detailed Descriptions:
  • Stake (1998) places a strong emphasis on storytelling and detailed descriptions of the case. Narratives help capture the essence of the case, providing a rich and vivid representation of the events, actors, and contexts involved.
  • Detailed descriptions are fundamental to communicating the complexity and particularity of the case. Through these descriptions, researchers can convey a complete and nuanced picture of the phenomenon under study, helping readers to understand the context and circumstances of the case.
• Values the Uniqueness and Complexity of the Case:
  • Stake (1998) values the uniqueness of each case, recognizing that each one has distinctive features that set it apart from others. This uniqueness is what makes a case worthy of study and provides deep, contextualized understanding.
  • The complexity of the case is addressed by considering multiple perspectives and dimensions. Stake (1998) is interested in exploring the various factors and elements that contribute to the configuration of the case and how these interact to create a complete and complex image of the phenomenon.

Other Relevant Aspects of Stake’s Approach (1998)

• Intrinsic, Instrumental, and Collective Case Studies:
  • Intrinsic: Conducted when there is intrinsic interest in the case itself, not to learn about other cases or general problems, but to understand that particular case.
  • Instrumental: Carried out to provide a broader understanding of a general issue or problem. The case serves as a tool to understand something beyond the case itself.
  • Collective: Involves the study of multiple cases simultaneously or sequentially to investigate a phenomenon, population, or general condition.
• Researcher’s Role:
  • In Stake’s approach (1998), the researcher plays an active role in interpreting the case. This means the researcher is not a neutral observer but interacts with the case and its participants, bringing their perspective and understanding to the analysis.
  • Reflexivity is an important part of the process, where the researcher reflects on their own impact and interaction with the case, ensuring a richer and more contextualized interpretation.
• Use of Multiple Methods and Data Sources:
  • Stake (1998) encourages the use of multiple data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, document analysis, and more, to obtain a comprehensive view of the case.
  • Data triangulation is fundamental in this approach to ensure the validity and richness of the analysis, using various sources of information to corroborate findings and provide a more complete understanding of the case.
• Emphasis on Interpretation:
  • Stake (1998) places significant emphasis on interpreting the data, aiming to understand the meanings and implications of events and actions within the case. This includes considering the perspectives of the different actors involved and how they perceive and experience the phenomenon.
  • Interpretation is a continuous and dynamic process, where the researcher reevaluates and refines their understanding as they progress in the study, ensuring that the analysis is deep and contextualized.

Practical Example

• Example: Academic Performance of a Student with a Disability
  • Case: A student with a rare disability who has achieved outstanding academic performance in a primary school.
  • Stake’s Approach (1998):
    • Naturalistic: Observe how the student interacts in their school environment without altering the conditions.
    • Holistic: Consider all factors that influence the student’s performance, including family support, educational adaptations, interaction with peers and teachers.
    • Narrative and Detailed Descriptions: Document the student’s life history, experiences, challenges, and achievements through interviews with the student, their parents, teachers, and friends, as well as classroom observations.
    • Uniqueness and Complexity: Explore how the unique combination of factors and experiences contributes to the student’s academic success, recognizing that their case is unique and complex.

This Stake (1998) approach allows for a deep and contextualized understanding of the phenomenon, emphasizing the importance of rich narratives and considering the particularity and complexity of the case in its natural context.

---

FEATURES OF HELEN SIMONS’ (2011) APPROACH TO CASE STUDIES

Helen Simons (2011) defines the case study as a research focused on the interpretation of meanings and experiences, adopting a participatory and collaborative approach. In this approach, study subjects are active participants in the research process, contributing their perspectives and experiences.

Main Features

• Ethnographic and Participatory Approach:
  • Ethnographic: The ethnographic approach involves a deep immersion into the cultural and social context of the case. Researchers observe and participate in the daily activities of the studied group, collecting data through participant observation and detailed interviews.
  • Participatory: In the participatory approach, study subjects are not merely objects of observation, but active collaborators in the research process. This means that participants have a voice in the planning, execution, and analysis of the study, contributing their knowledge and perspectives.
• Reflexivity and Self-Criticism:
  • Reflexivity: Simons (2011) highlights the importance of reflexivity in research, where researchers must continuously reflect on their own role, biases, and the impact they have on the study. Reflexivity involves ongoing evaluation of how the researcher’s actions, values, and background influence the process and findings of the research.
  • Self-Criticism: Self-criticism is essential to ensure the validity and integrity of the research. Researchers must be critical of their own practices and methodological decisions, always seeking to improve and adjust their approach to achieve more accurate and meaningful results.

Other Relevant Aspects of Simons’ (2011) Approach

• Emphasis on Interpretation of Meanings and Experiences:
  • Simons (2011) places strong emphasis on interpreting the meanings and experiences of participants. This means going beyond superficial data to understand the perceptions, emotions, and values of study subjects.
• Contextualization of the Case:
  • The importance of context is central to Simons’ (2011) approach. The case study is conducted considering the cultural, social, and historical environment in which the phenomenon occurs. This contextualization helps to understand how the context influences the experiences and meanings of the case.
• Transformative and Critical Approach:
  • Simons (2011) sees the case study not only as a tool to understand reality but also to transform it. The participatory and reflective approach allows researchers and participants to identify problems and work together to find solutions.
  • The critical approach involves questioning power structures and established practices, seeking to promote positive change and social justice.

Practical Example

• Example: Implementation of a Tutoring Program in a University
  • Case: Implementation of a tutoring program in a university to improve the academic performance of first-year students.
  • Simons’ Approach (2011):
    • Ethnographic and Participatory: Researchers participate in tutoring sessions, observing interactions between tutors and students. Students and tutors are interviewed in-depth and participate in focus groups to discuss their experiences and suggestions.
    • Reflexivity and Self-Criticism: Researchers continuously reflect on their influence on the study and adjust their methods according to the needs and feedback from participants. Self-criticism ensures that the approach remains relevant and valid.
    • Methodological Flexibility: Multiple qualitative methods are used, including participant observation, in-depth interviews, and document analysis (e.g., tutoring plans, progress reports). Triangulation of these methods provides a rich and complete understanding of the tutoring program.
    • Interpretation of Meanings and Experiences: Researchers work with participants to interpret the data, ensuring that the conclusions authentically reflect the experiences and perceptions of students and tutors.

This Simons (2011) approach allows for a deep and transformative understanding of the phenomenon under study, emphasizing the importance of the active participation of study subjects and researcher reflexivity throughout the research process.

---

FEATURES OF ROBERT YIN’S (2014) APPROACH TO CASE STUDIES

Robert Yin (2014) defines the case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and the context are not clearly defined. This approach uses multiple sources of evidence and develops theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis.

Main Features

• Structured and Systematic Approach:
  • Structured: Yin (2014) emphasizes the importance of a well-defined and structured case study design. This involves formulating clear research questions, defining the purpose of the study (exploratory, descriptive, explanatory), and establishing precise procedures for data collection and analysis.
  • Systematic: Yin’s (2014) systematic approach includes detailed planning of each phase of the case study, from defining the problem and reviewing literature to collecting data, analyzing, and presenting findings. This rigorous process ensures the study is replicable and the results are valid and reliable.
• Use of Multiple Sources of Evidence:
  • Yin (2014) advocates for data triangulation using multiple sources of evidence, such as interviews, direct observations, documents, archival records, and physical artifacts. Triangulation helps corroborate findings and construct a more robust and complete narrative of the case.
• Analytical Generalization and Methodological Rigor:
  • Analytical Generalization: Unlike statistical generalization, which relies on representative samples, Yin (2014) promotes analytical generalization, where the findings from a case are compared to an existing theory. This allows the results of a case study to be used to expand and refine theories.
  • Methodological Rigor: Yin (2014) stresses the importance of methodological rigor throughout the case study process. This includes using detailed protocols for data collection, establishing chains of evidence, and conducting systematic data analysis. Methodological rigor ensures that findings are credible and the study can be replicated by other researchers.

Other Relevant Aspects of Yin’s (2014) Approach

• Case Study Design:
  • Yin (2014) identifies five key components in the design of a case study: study questions, propositions (if relevant), units of analysis, logic that links data to propositions, and criteria for interpreting findings.
• Phases of Design:
  • Exploratory Design: For defining questions and developing hypotheses for future studies.
  • Descriptive Design: For describing the phenomenon in its real context.
  • Explanatory Design: For explaining causal relationships within the case.
• Data Analysis Procedures and Techniques:
  • Yin (2014) employs structured data analysis techniques, such as pattern matching, explanation building, and temporal and logical model analysis.

Practical Example

• Example: Evaluation of a New Remote Monitoring Technology in a Hospital
  • Case: Evaluation of the implementation and impact of new remote monitoring technology for chronic disease patients in a hospital.
  • Yin’s Approach (2014):
    • Structured and Systematic: Define research questions clearly (e.g., How does the new technology affect medical staff efficiency and satisfaction? What barriers exist to its adoption?), develop a descriptive and explanatory case design, and establish detailed procedures for data collection.
    • Multiple Sources of Evidence: Collect data from interviews with doctors, nurses, and patients, observe the use of technology in the hospital, analyze documents and medical records, and examine physical artifacts (monitoring devices).
    • Analytical Generalization and Methodological Rigor: Compare findings with existing theories on technology adoption in healthcare settings, use pattern matching and explanation building techniques to analyze data, and validate results through triangulation and peer review.

This Yin (2014) approach allows for a deep and rigorous understanding of the phenomenon under study, highlighting the importance of a structured design, the use of multiple sources of evidence, and methodological rigor throughout the case study.

---

Comparative Table of Case Study Approaches: Stake (1998), Simons (2011), and Yin (2014)

Aspect	Robert Stake (1998)	Helen Simons (2011)	Robert Yin (2014)
Case Study Definition	Empirical research focusing on the particularity and complexity of a singular case.	Research focusing on interpreting meanings and experiences.	Empirical inquiry investigating a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context.
Approach	Naturalistic and Holistic	Ethnographic and Participatory	Structured and Systematic
Main Emphasis	Narrative and detailed descriptions	Reflexivity and self-criticism	Use of multiple sources of evidence and methodological rigor
Values	Uniqueness and complexity of the case	Active participation of study subjects	Analytical generalization and methodological rigor
Types of Case Studies	Intrinsic, Instrumental, Collective	Ethnographic, Participatory, Critical	Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory
Methodology	Use of multiple qualitative methods, triangulation	Methodological flexibility, multiple qualitative methods	Use of multiple sources of evidence, triangulation
Procedures	Active participation of the researcher, emphasis on interpretation	Continuous reflexivity, interaction with participants	Structured and systematic design, detailed planning
Analysis Techniques	Narrative interpretation, contextual analysis	Interpretation of meanings and experiences	Pattern matching, explanation building, temporal series analysis
Practical Example	Academic performance of a student with a disability	Implementation of a tutoring program at a university	Evaluation of a new remote monitoring technology in a hospital
Contextualization	Holistic: Consideration of all parts and their interrelationship	Importance of cultural, social, and historical context	Analysis of the phenomenon in its real context
Transformative Approach	–	Identification of problems and finding solutions, social justice	–
Reflexivity and Self-Criticism	Reflection on the researcher’s impact on the study	Continuous reflection on the researcher’s role and adjustment of methodological approach	Validation through peer review and triangulation
Methodological Flexibility	Adapting techniques according to the case’s needs	Use of various qualitative techniques adapted to the case’s context	Detailed protocols for data collection and analysis, ensuring replicability

This comparative table summarizes the main approaches and characteristics of Robert Stake (1998), Helen Simons (2011), and Robert Yin (2014) in case study research, highlighting their definitions, methodologies, types of case studies, analysis techniques, and practical examples.

Case studies are a crucial qualitative research strategy to gain deep and contextualized understanding of complex phenomena. This methodology allows researchers to explore events, people, groups, or specific processes in their real-life environments, providing valuable insights that cannot be obtained through other research methods. Case studies are especially useful when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly defined, allowing for an exhaustive exploration of the interactions and relationships that shape the case.

Robert Stake (1998) focuses on the particularity and complexity of each case, adopting a naturalistic and holistic approach. Stake values the uniqueness of the case and the richness of its narratives, using detailed descriptions to capture the essence of the studied phenomenon. His methodology centers on interpretation and reflexivity, considering multiple perspectives from the actors involved and promoting the use of diverse methods for effective data triangulation. Stake distinguishes between intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies, offering flexibility that adapts research to different contexts and purposes.

Helen Simons (2011) adopts a participatory and ethnographic approach, where study subjects are active collaborators in the research process. Simons emphasizes the interpretation of meanings and experiences, reflexivity, and self-criticism from the researcher. Her flexible approach allows for the use of multiple qualitative methods, adapting dynamically to the case’s needs. Contextualization of the phenomenon is central in her approach, ensuring that findings authentically reflect the participants’ experiences and perspectives. Simons also sees the case study as a tool for social transformation, promoting positive change and social justice.

Robert Yin (2014) proposes a structured and systematic approach to case studies, emphasizing the importance of methodological rigor and analytical generalization. Yin uses multiple sources of evidence and develops theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis. His methodology includes detailed techniques like pattern matching, explanation building, and temporal series analysis, ensuring the validity and replicability of studies. Yin classifies case studies into exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory, providing a clear and detailed framework for addressing different research questions.

Together, the approaches of Stake, Simons, and Yin offer a rich and diverse perspective on how to conduct case studies. Stake provides a holistic and narrative vision, focusing on the case’s uniqueness and interpreting its complexities. Simons brings a participatory and transformative approach, emphasizing reflexivity and the active participation of study subjects. Yin, on the other hand, provides a structured and systematic framework, ensuring methodological rigor and the validity of findings.

Each of these approaches has its own relevance and application, allowing researchers to choose the most appropriate method based on their study’s context and objectives. Combining these approaches enriches qualitative methodology, offering powerful tools to explore and understand complex phenomena in real-life contexts. Case studies, when approached in this way, not only provide a deep and detailed understanding but also contribute to theoretical development and transformative practice across various disciplines.

References

Simons, H. (2011). Case Study Research in Practice. Sage Publications.
Stake, R. E. (1998). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Sage Publications.
Yin, R. K. (2014). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Sage Publications.